Isn’t meditation already evidence-based? If meditation is, then so are psychedelics.

1. Executive Summary

This report analyzes Dr. Adam O’Brien’s position paper, “Memory Reconsolidation in Psychedelic Therapy,” which posits that Psychedelic Therapy (PT) represents a significant advancement in trauma and addiction treatment. The central thesis of O’Brien’s work is that PT effectively accesses and facilitates Memory Reconsolidation (MR), a neurobiological process fundamental to resolving deeply ingrained traumatic memories and addictive patterns. This mechanism, it is argued, positions PT as a robust candidate for an evidence-based practice, leveraging mechanisms of action (MoA) that share underlying principles with other established trauma therapies.

A cornerstone of O’Brien’s argument is the introduction of the Addiction as Dissociation Model (ADM). This novel clinical framework provides a comprehensive lens through which to understand the therapeutic benefits of psychedelics and dissociation as the experience of healing. The ADM illuminates the profound interconnectedness and overlapping symptomatology of trauma, dissociation, and addiction (O’Brien, 2023a). It reconceptualizes addiction not merely as a behavioral disorder but as a “trauma-bond” to dissociative responses, which are themselves inherently linked to the body’s innate healing mechanisms.

The paper’s broader implications extend beyond the therapeutic efficacy of psychedelics. It challenges conventional understandings within mental health, advocating for a fundamental re-evaluation of dissociation as a universal and often adaptive healing process. It further proposes a reinterpretation of phenomena traditionally labeled as “hallucinations,” suggesting they are instead meaningful manifestations of unconscious memory and internal experience. This perspective calls for a significant paradigm shift in clinical practice, emphasizing the critical importance of trauma-informed care and an integrated understanding of the intricate dynamics between mind and body in the healing process.

2. Introduction to Psychedelic Therapy and Memory Reconsolidation

Psychedelic Therapy (PT) has garnered significant attention, notably achieving “break-through status” by the FDA for its application in treating posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). This recognition underscores a growing scientific acceptance of psychedelics’ therapeutic potential. Emerging research further reinforces this by highlighting that PT appears to access Memory Reconsolidation (MR), a crucial neurobiological process that is a key indicator for a therapy’s potential to become an evidence-based trauma resolution modality. This development offers considerable promise for individuals suffering from a wide array of physical and psychological conditions.  

The paper emphasizes the transdiagnostic nature of trauma and dissociation, a concept supported by extensive research. Building upon this, the Addiction as Dissociation Model (ADM) research extends this transdiagnostic understanding to addiction, suggesting a fundamental interconnectedness among these conditions. Despite these promising findings and the historical use of psychedelics, a significant knowledge gap persists regarding the common mechanisms of action (MoA) that universally facilitate MR. This lack of widespread understanding among clinicians, policymakers, and the general public contributes to ignorance, perpetuates myths and misconceptions, disseminates disinformation, and ultimately stigmatizes the subject matter. Such barriers prevent individuals from engaging in their innate repair processes or from accessing ancient healing practices that have served humankind for millennia.  

The primary objective of this paper is to bridge this knowledge gap. It aims to meticulously outline the process of MR within PT to support its establishment as an evidence-based practice. To achieve this, the paper explores the algorithm of MR and the known MoA observed in existing evidence-based and evidence-supported trauma resolution therapies. This comparative analysis serves to demonstrate precisely how and why psychedelic medicines offer a viable and reliable path to healing for both physical and psychological trauma. For the purpose of this comparison, the discussion specifically references Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Therapy, Brainspotting (BSP), Deep Brain Reorienting (DBR), and Progressive Counting (PC). These specific therapies are chosen due to the author’s formal training or certification in them, providing a direct experiential foundation for the comparative analysis.  

The immediate assertion that PT accesses MR and its comparison to established therapies like EMDR, BSP, DBR, PC, and meditation implies a fundamental challenge to the traditional biomedical model’s singular focus on symptom reduction through pharmacotherapy. This perspective suggests that PT is not merely a novel drug treatment but a therapeutic modality leveraging fundamental psychological and neurobiological processes shared with non-pharmacological interventions. This framing points towards a shift from a purely chemical-symptom-management approach to a process-oriented, memory-reprocessing paradigm for mental health. The implication is that the “medicine” in PT serves as a powerful catalyst for an inherent healing process, rather than being the sole agent of change, thereby questioning the traditional pharmaceutical-centric approach to mental health.

3. Understanding Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation

To comprehend the therapeutic action of psychedelics, it is essential to distinguish between memory consolidation (MC) and memory reconsolidation (MR). Memory consolidation is the process by which new memories are initially processed and condensed for storage within the brain’s memory system. This intricate process involves how and where memories are encoded, condensed, and eventually stored. The nature of the encoding depends heavily on the original experience—whether it was an everyday event, a traumatic incident, or a joyful moment. Furthermore, the specific brain regions involved in this formation, such as the hippocampus for explicit/declarative memory or the amygdala for implicit/emotional/procedural memory, dictate how and where the memory is ultimately stored. MC is largely believed to occur during the sleep cycle, transforming working memories into long-term storage. When life unfolds as expected, the MC process efficiently maintains the memory system’s functionality, ensuring a smooth flow of information.  

While memories are understood to become a “permanent part of the body”, the groundbreaking concept of memory reconsolidation (MR) introduces the capacity for these stored memories to change. MR is the process where a consolidated memory, after its initial storage, is reactivated, reviewed, and subsequently re-stored in a new location. This phenomenon, first observed in animals, supports the principle of neuroplasticity, indicating that the brain’s structure and function can be modified. MR can occur naturally over time through everyday experiences and consequences, or it can be intentionally prompted in therapy to resolve traumatic memories, such as those seen in PTSD. The outcome of a reconsolidated memory is an updated understanding of the event, significantly reduced emotional content, and, in some cases, a phenomenon akin to “memory erasure”. This process is foundational to trauma therapies and facilitates what is known as the Adaptive Information Process (AIP).  

The neurobiological underpinnings of MR are exemplified by EMDR Therapy, which has achieved evidence-based status. During the desensitizing and reprocessing phases (phases 4-6) of EMDR, where MR directly occurs, researchers have observed profound neurobiological changes. These include maximal activation shifting from emotional limbic regions to cortical cognitive brain regions, modifications in cerebral blood flow, and changes in neuronal volume and density. Furthermore, EMDR has been shown to modulate the Default Mode Network (DMN), a brain network associated with self-referential thought and mind-wandering, in traumatized patients. This suggests that the presence of a Mechanism of Action (MoA) may universally reduce DMN activity, creating conditions conducive to memory reprocessing.  

The algorithm for unlocking an MR process, as outlined by Ecker, Ticic, and Hulley (2012), involves three key steps:  

1. Symptoms Identification: This involves identifying the specific symptom-requiring schema.
2. Retrieval of Target Learning: The consolidated memory is reactivated.
3. Identification of Disconfirming Knowledge: New, discomforting experiences are guided within a specific timeframe (e.g., 5-hour window) to achieve a form of “erasure” of the old, maladaptive learning.  

O’Brien adapts this algorithm to the context of Psychedelic Therapy, mapping the process as follows :  

1. Orientation/Intention Setting: This phase corresponds to the identification of symptoms and setting the therapeutic focus.
2. Medicine Phase: Destabilization/Activation: During this phase, a consolidated or implicitly held memory is reactivated, producing dissonance or conflict between competing beliefs or experiences, often juxtaposing the “now” with the “then.”
3. Adaptive Conclusions/Integration: As a result of engaging with and learning from this dissonance, adaptive conclusions are drawn, leading to the integration of a new perspective and/or an updated narrative.

The significance of MR in psychotherapy cannot be overstated. Given that memories become a permanent part of the body, MR provides a crucial mechanism for releasing emotional material that has become “stuck” or separated from the main “collective narrative” of an individual’s experience. This process allows for the shedding of pain while retaining the acquired learning, enabling individuals to move forward from their past. The breakdown of maladaptive learning acquired during a traumatic event, coupled with the emergence of new perspectives, leads to an adaptive resolution of the traumatic memory, with the updated viewpoint becoming readily accessible after reprocessing.  

The explicit statement that MR “can happen naturally over the course of time through natural discourse, natural consequences” suggests that formalized therapy merely optimizes or accelerates an inherent biological and psychological capacity for healing and adaptation. If MR occurs spontaneously, it implies that the brain and body possess an intrinsic mechanism for updating and resolving problematic memories. This understanding de-pathologizes the healing process, indicating that distress often arises from the impediment of natural MR rather than a fundamental flaw. Therapy, including PT, then becomes a facilitator of this innate process, rather than a sole cure, potentially broadening the understanding of healing beyond traditional clinical settings.

4. Mechanisms of Action (MoA) in Trauma Resolution Therapies

A Mechanism of Action (MoA) is broadly defined as any form of stimulation or catalyst that influences the memory system, consciousness, or present state of awareness, thereby enabling shifts in mind states to occur. These MoA are central to how various trauma resolution therapies facilitate Memory Reconsolidation (MR).  

Examples of MoA are evident across different established trauma therapies:

• In EMDR Therapy, the primary MoA is Dual Attention Stimulus (DAS) or Bilateral Stimulation (BLS). This typically involves eye movements, auditory tones, or tactile sensations that alternate from side to side.  
• Brainspotting (BSP) utilizes the MoA of visually orienting towards an unconscious reflexive cue or “spot” while maintaining focused mindfulness and attention. This allows access to physical or implicitly held memories or sensorimotor memories.  
• Deep Brain Reorienting (DBR) focuses its MoA on orienting mindful attention to tension within the body.  
• Progressive Counting (PC) employs the simple yet effective MoA of counting sounds , which serves to create a rhythmic, dual attention state.  
• Meditation/Breathwork: Trained in a variety of meditation practices and traditions, including Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction, Dr. Adam explores the foundational aspects of consciousness, unconsciousness, and dissociative states of awareness.
• Neurofeedback: Complementing these approaches is Dr. Adam’s training and clinical expertise in meditative states and use of qEEG.

A compelling argument within the paper is the universality of MoA, asserting that they are inherent to the human experience and mimic natural life processes. This perspective suggests that many everyday activities can function as MoA, potentially facilitating spontaneous healing. Examples include walking or running, which involve bilateral stimulation akin to EMDR; playing musical instruments; engaging in conversation; listening to background music or noise; mindfully gazing out a window; creating art; drumming; or even the act of reading, which involves eye movements. Even silence, when consciously attended to, can act as a MoA. The crucial element is that if a state of conscious or unconscious focused attention is achieved, individuals can intentionally or unintentionally engage in their own healing processes. Therapy, in this view, essentially mimics the natural passage of time and the experience of cause and effect, where present experiences are felt in contrast to past ones, constantly making MR available if one is willing to activate disturbed or conflicting feelings.  

When a MoA is present and actively stimulating a shift in consciousness, it creates an altered state of consciousness (ASC) and, crucially, a dual attention state of awareness. This dual attention, characterized by being “here and not here at the same time” , generates the necessary contrast between “what is believed” and “what is”. This contrast is precisely what allows for memory resolution or reconsolidation to occur. The interplay between conscious attention (mind) and unconscious attention (body) is the generative force behind this resolution.

There is a scholarly debate regarding the precise function of MoA. One perspective suggests that MoA “taxes” the working memory system, causing it to “let go” of the traumatic memory. Another view posits that MoA facilitates a grounding mechanism, enabling individuals to safely witness and feel stuck emotions. The paper suggests that both perspectives may hold truth, as both are predicated on dissociative responses. For instance, “distraction” can be seen as an avoidance tactic rooted in dissociative processes, while “taxation” of working memory can produce a dissociative stress response or altered awareness. However, the paper leans towards the grounding mechanism as more accurate, as clinical experience suggests that conscious “letting go” is less common than an unconscious recognition of new learning.  

Beyond specific techniques, the therapeutic alliance and dual attunement with the practitioner are considered fundamental and traditional MoA, present in healing practices since the dawn of humankind. In this context, the practitioner acts as a grounding agent, enabling the client to witness their own MR process. Psychedelics, as a distinct MoA, offer a unique pathway by providing a “ride to the unconscious” when conscious access is limited, or by bringing unconscious material directly into conscious awareness.  

The extensive list of “everyday” activities that function as MoA, such as walking, playing music, reading, or meditation, implies that humans are constantly engaging in self-healing processes, often unconsciously. This perspective reframes healing as an ongoing, inherent aspect of human experience, not solely confined to formal therapeutic interventions. If these common activities naturally facilitate the core mechanism of trauma resolution (MR), then it suggests that humans are inherently equipped for and constantly engaging in self-healing. This understanding challenges the medicalization of distress and healing, indicating that many “coping mechanisms” or even leisure activities might be unconscious attempts at MR. It also suggests that fostering environments and practices that encourage these natural MoA could be a widespread public health strategy for resilience and well-being, extending beyond formal therapy.

Table 1: Comparison of Memory Reconsolidation Therapies and their MoA

Therapy Name	Primary Mechanism of Action	How it Facilitates MR (Dual Attention/Shift)
EMDR Therapy	Dual Attention Stimulus (DAS) / Bilateral Stimulation (BLS)	Creates a dual attention state between internal focus on memory and external bilateral stimulation, facilitating neurobiological shifts from limbic to cortical regions.
Brainspotting (BSP)	Visually orienting towards an unconscious reflexive cue or spot with focused mindfulness and attention	Utilizes a fixed eye position to access and process sensorimotor memories, creating a dual attention state between internal experience and external gaze.
Deep Brain Reorienting (DBR)	Orienting a mindful focus on tension in the body	Directs attention to somatic sensations, engaging the brainstem’s orienting response to defuse normal consciousness and access implicitly held material.
Progressive Counting (PC)	Counting of sound	Uses rhythmic auditory counting to create a dual attention state, allowing for the processing and resolution of traumatic memories.
Psychedelic Therapy (PT)	Dissociation: Psychoactive Medicine (e.g., MDMA, Psilocybin)	Induces altered states of consciousness, quiets the Default Mode Network (DMN), and thins the Amnesia Barrier, allowing unconscious material to enter conscious awareness and facilitate memory reprocessing.
Meditation/Breathwork	Psychoactive State of presence and non-presence	Dual attention and dual focus
Neurofeedback	Psychoactive conditioned state of awareness	Like meditation, conditioning calm into being produces state consciousness

5. Psychedelic Classification and Neurobiological Basis

The historical use of psychedelics is ancient, with evidence dating back to cave art. Modern scientific understanding classifies a drug as psychedelic primarily when it acts as a serotonin agonist or partial agonist, specifically influencing the 5-HT2a receptors (5-HT2aR). These receptors are predominantly found in the cerebral cortex. Tryptamine compounds, which are molecularly similar to serotonin, are a key component of classical psychedelics. When administered in sufficient doses, these tryptamines can flood receptor sites, leading to an overwhelming serotonin-like experience that often manifests as “hallucinations” and other symptoms associated with serotonin syndrome, such as confusion, agitation, changes in blood pressure or temperature, nausea, and increased heart rate.  

Classical psychedelics are typically plant-based and naturally occurring. Examples include Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), which is found in all organic matter and is often referred to as the “spiritual molecule” , and Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD), which is derived from ergot mold found on rye bread. The paper categorizes psychedelics into several groups :  

• Classical Psychedelics (or Hallucinogens): This category includes DMT (encompassing psilocybin and ayahuasca), LSD, and Cannabis.
• Dissociatives: Ketamine is a primary example in this group.
• Entheogens: Peyote falls under this classification.
• Empathogens: MDMA is the key substance in this category.

Cannabis, specifically its active psychedelic agent THC, is discussed in relation to its neurobiological effects. Research indicates that long-term cannabis use, particularly in young adults, may play a role in the development of schizophrenia. This is attributed to THC’s ability to induce a “pro-hallucinogenic molecular conformation of the 5-HT2aR” , further supporting its classification as a psychedelic. THC also binds as an agonist or partial agonist to cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, which, like serotonin receptors, are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). Serotonin itself is a critical hormone that stabilizes mood, promotes well-being, and contributes to happiness. Furthermore, cannabis has been shown to increase alpha waves in the brain, which are associated with conscious awareness, focused attention, and mindfulness, thereby facilitating a present-moment experience.  

A compelling aspect of psychedelics discussed is their endogenous nature. Many psychedelic chemicals, such as those found in cannabis (endocannabinoid system) and DMT (pineal gland), are naturally present within the human body. This suggests that these compounds are “welcomed visitors” to the body and do not inherently harm receptor sites. The fact that DMT is naturally hoarded and released from the pineal gland during the dying process suggests a profound link between the body’s natural stress and trauma responses and the “hallucinogenic” effects mediated by 5-HT2aR. While classical psychedelics primarily interact with the serotonin system, other substances like cocaine, opiates, and alcohol predominantly act on the dopamine system. However, these substances can also induce “hallucinations,” particularly during states of withdrawal or distress. The endogenous opiate system, in particular, presents an interesting parallel, as opiate use and withdrawal can similarly produce hallucinatory effects.  

The fact that psychedelic compounds are “found naturally within the human body” and influence endogenous systems, such as the endocannabinoid system and the pineal gland’s DMT production, suggests that these substances do not introduce entirely foreign processes. Instead, they appear to amplify or modulate existing, innate neurobiological pathways related to consciousness, memory, and even fundamental life transitions like dying. If these compounds are endogenous and involved in such fundamental biological processes, then their external administration via psychedelics is likely tapping into and enhancing pre-existing biological “software” for altering consciousness and processing information. This perspective moves beyond viewing psychedelics as mere “drugs” that induce artificial states, leading to an understanding of them as keys that unlock or amplify inherent human capacities for self-regulation, introspection, and potentially, profound memory processing and healing. It supports the idea that the “trip” is a highly personalized, biologically-driven experience, not simply a random chemical effect.

6. Psychedelics and the Memory Systems: An In-Depth Exploration

The profound influence of serotonin 5-HT2a receptors (5-HT2aR) extends significantly into the domains of learning, memory, hallucination, and spatial cognition. Research indicates that activation of 5-HT2aR after a learning experience can enhance non-spatial memory consolidation, while activation before a learning experience can facilitate fear extinction. This dual role underscores their critical involvement in how memories are formed, stored, and modified.  

The paper offers a compelling reinterpretation of “hallucinations” experienced under the influence of psychedelics. It suggests that the activation of 5-HT2aR may be the mechanism through which an individual “separates from oneself (body from mind)” and enters a “non-reality or dissociative state where implicit and procedural memory reside and imagery/symbolism are the language of choice”. An alternative, and perhaps more nuanced, possibility is that the conscious mind, specifically the Default Mode Network (DMN), quiets down, allowing unconscious bodily processes—such as action systems, dissociative reenactments, and “intrusions”—to become dominant. From this perspective, “hallucinations” are not random sensory distortions but are fundamentally “made of memories,” as memories form the very foundation of an individual’s reality. This aligns with contemporary psychotherapy, which increasingly views such phenomena as manifestations of “aspects of self and/or are aspects of traumatic memories playing themselves out”.  

A key neurobiological effect of psychedelic medicines is their demonstrated ability to decrease activity in the Default Mode Network (DMN). Concurrently, they appear to thin the Amnesia Barrier (AB). The AB is conceptualized as the “veil between our conscious and unconscious self” , responsible for retaining our emotional world and various ego states. By reducing DMN activity and thinning the AB, psychedelics create a unique neurophysiological window that readily allows for Memory Reconsolidation (MR) to take place. Beyond these effects, psychedelics have been shown to increase neural activity, impact gene expression, and, critically, directly perform MR.  

In Psychedelic Therapy (PT), the medicine itself serves as the primary Mechanism of Action (MoA), providing a form of dual attention stimulus (DAS). The decreased activity in the DMN is theorized to provide the necessary “contrast” within the brain that activates the MR algorithm. Furthermore, external factors during a PT session reinforce the omnipresence of MoA and MR. For instance, clients often lie down with their eyes closed, focusing on the internal imagery they are experiencing. This internal focus parallels the MoA in Brainspotting (BSP), which involves mindful gazing, Deep Brain Reorienting (DBR), which utilizes a fixed gaze while orienting to body tension, and meditation, which implies that being is not doing nothing. Additionally, natural eye movements, similar to the bilateral stimulation in EMDR, can occur during the psychedelic experience. This suggests that the MR process can be continuously active at some level if these underlying “active ingredients” are unconsciously present, implying that bringing conscious awareness to something is functionally equivalent to activating unconscious awareness.  

The emergence of a “negative state”, a hallmark of addiction when a substance is withheld or when psychological defenses are lowered by the medicine, is particularly significant for MR. These “raw states of mind” are often wounded aspects of the self that emerge to draw attention to past and current injuries. Examples include unconscious shifts in personality, regression to earlier developmental stages, or the reenactment of unresolved trauma. These shifts naturally create the conditions for step two of MR, which involves confrontation with conflict. The unique feature of PT is the opportunity for the client to consciously engage directly with these “negative states” in a therapeutic setting, with the Amnesia Barrier lowered. This direct engagement with internal conflict is crucial for facilitating the reconsolidation process.  

The reinterpretation of “hallucinations” as unconscious material, memories, or “aspects of self” represents a profound reframing within the paper. This perspective suggests that the psychedelic experience is not merely random neural noise but a highly organized, albeit non-linear, communication from the implicit memory system aimed at resolution. If hallucinations are internal memories or aspects of self manifesting, then the “trip” becomes a personalized, symbolic narrative generated by the unconscious mind. This shifts the clinical approach from suppressing “hallucinations” as symptoms of pathology to interpreting them as meaningful, albeit often distressing, communications from the deeper self. It implies that the psychedelic journey is a highly individualized diagnostic and therapeutic process, where the individual is actively, though unconsciously, presenting their own healing agenda. This also challenges a reductionist view of the brain as solely a chemical machine, suggesting a more integrated, narrative-driven understanding of consciousness and healing.

Table 3: Neurobiological Mechanisms in Psychedelic Therapy and Memory Reconsolidation

Neurotransmitter/Receptor/Brain Network	Role in Psychedelic Action/MR	Relevant Psychedelics/Drugs
Serotonin (5-HT2aR)	Primary target for classical psychedelics; agonist/partial agonist action; enhances non-spatial memory consolidation; facilitates fear extinction; involved in “hallucinogenic” effects.	DMT, Psilocybin, Ayahuasca, LSD, Cannabis, MDMA
Tryptamines	Molecularly similar to serotonin; flood receptor sites, producing serotonin-like experiences.	DMT, Psilocybin, Ayahuasca, LSD
Default Mode Network (DMN)	Decreased activity during psychedelic states, allowing access to unconscious material and facilitating MR.	Ayahuasca, Classical Psychedelics
Endocannabinoid System	Instrumental to healing; active in dissociation; potential common neurochemical grounding agent for MR.	Cannabis (THC/CBD)
Endogenous Opiate System	Instrumental in numbing; implicated in dissociation and addiction; can produce hallucinatory effects.	Opiates, Alcohol (withdrawal), Trauma
Dopamine System	Primary target for non-classical drugs; involved in reward/pain circuitry of addiction.	Cocaine, Opiates, Alcohol
Amnesia Barrier (AB)	Thinned by psychedelic drugs, allowing unconscious material and “negative states” to enter conscious awareness.	All Psychedelics

7. The Addiction as Dissociation Model (ADM)

The Addiction as Dissociation Model (ADM) represents a significant theoretical contribution, rooted in the author’s phenomenological study exploring the intricate interplay of trauma, dissociation, and addiction, particularly focusing on the concept of “drug use memory”. The core argument of ADM is that the dissociative state, though often misunderstood and poorly defined in medical literature, is not merely a pathological response but is, in fact, necessary for healing. This model seeks to provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how psychedelics can facilitate profound therapeutic change by addressing these interconnected phenomena.  

The key tenets of the Addiction as Dissociation Model are as follows :  

• Drug Use Memory: A single drug use event can generate an unprocessed addiction or drug use memory, which functions akin to a traumatic memory. If left unaddressed, this can lead to dissociative manifestations, mirroring symptoms seen in PTSD, such as intrusions, reenactments, and compulsive behaviors.  
• Definition of Addiction: ADM redefines addiction as the complex relationship formed between unresolved trauma and the continuous, unchecked progression of dissociative responses. This perspective shifts the focus from addiction as a standalone pathology to a consequence of deeper, unresolved psychological processes.
• Spectrum of Dissociation: Trauma, dissociation, and addiction are posited to exist on a spectrum, ranging from normal and reasonable altered states of consciousness (ASC) to extreme circumstances that can produce pathological states, termed “dissociation-in-trauma”. This spectrum is cyclical, with overlapping symptomology and underlying processes.  
• Survival-Oriented System: The model highlights the role of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and nucleus accumbens (NA), which form a survival-oriented system. This system, governed by unconscious regulation and dissociative mechanisms, fuels the “wants and needs”—both pain and reward—associated with addiction and drug use.
• Trauma vs. Dissociation: A critical distinction is made: trauma is defined as the initial event, while anything occurring post-event is considered dissociation. The symptoms of PTSD are thus interpreted as defining dissociation, representing the body’s dissociative/stress response attempting to return to homeostasis after a traumatic event.
• Cortisol, Opiates, and Cannabinoids in PTSD: In individuals experiencing active PTSD, cortisol (a stress hormone) levels are paradoxically lower, while endogenous opiate and endocannabinoid levels are elevated. This suggests that individuals with active PTSD are essentially living in a dissociated state, utilizing these internal systems for self-regulation.  
• Dissociation as Essential: Dissociation is presented as a natural, unavoidable, and fundamental process for both survival and thriving. Addiction, in this context, is understood as being “trauma-bonded to the dissociative process that trauma caused.”
• Addiction as Conditioning: Individuals can become addicted to dissociation itself, developing habitual or procedural memory dependence through intrusive means that generate associative learning and classical/operant conditioning.
• Stress and Dissociation: Both pain-based and euphoria-based stressors are seen to stress the body and induce dissociation, sharing common dissociative mechanisms. They are described as “the same coin, different sides.”
• Hallucinations and Delusions: Dissociative processes are implicated in the production of hallucinations, delusions, and “shadow” material, which are understood to be based on unresolved memories of unmet needs, often stemming from trauma.
• Endogenous Systems in Pain-Based Responses: Pain-based dissociative responses specifically involve the endogenous opiate system, which is instrumental in numbing , and the endocannabinoid system.  
• Naltrexone and Stress Response: The universal application of Naltrexone, an opioid antagonist, is cited as evidence for how the stress response of dissociation underlies all mental health disorders, including addictions.  
• Endocannabinoid System in Healing: The endocannabinoid system is highlighted as instrumental to the body’s healing processes.  
• Addictive States: These are characterized as all-consuming dissociative states of being that frequently lead to further traumatic experiences.
• “Choice” in Addiction: The “choice” to engage in addictive behavior is reframed as an unconscious survival choice. The “disease” of addiction is understood as pathological dissociation, stemming from “dissociation-in-trauma” , which in turn creates a cyclical relationship of “addiction-in-dissociation” and “dissociation-in-addiction”.  
• Trauma is Addicting: Trauma itself can be addicting due to the involvement of the endogenous opiate system in dissociation.  
• Addiction to Anything: The model suggests that an individual can become addicted to virtually anything, as the core issue lies in the pathological relationship to the addictive/dissociative behavior, rather than solely the substance or activity itself.
• Addiction as Informed Regulatory Choice: Addictive behaviors are viewed as informed regulatory choices made at an unconscious level.
• Implicit Memory System: The implicit memory system is considered highly involved in early childhood development and is crucial for overall health, well-being, and healing. It is believed to play a role in the body’s inherent healing process, where one must “get sick in order to get well”.  
• Parts of Self: The intrusive nature of dissociative systems points to a universal system of “parts of self” that require consideration in any treatment approach, as they involve the implicit memory system.
• Addiction as Transdiagnostic: Providing evidence that addiction underlies all mental health disorders offers the field of psychology a fuller, realistic, and more complete picture of what mental health is and what it isn’t.
• Lost Addictions: ADM presents information on perfectionism, altruism, and ambition as process addictions.
• The Physical Body is the Psychological Unconscious: Presenting that emotions are not irrational and that the unconsciousness has consciousness, this work settles religious, legal, and philosophical arguments about the nature of the psyche.

The ADM’s definition of addiction as a “trauma-bond to the dissociative process that trauma caused” and its connection to the body’s innate healing systems fundamentally redefines addiction not as a moral failing or simple disease, but as a deeply ingrained, albeit maladaptive, survival strategy. This strategy attempts to achieve homeostasis through dissociative means. If dissociation is a natural survival and healing mechanism, and addiction is a “trauma-bond” to this process, then addictive behaviors are, at their core, unconscious attempts to regulate overwhelming internal states (whether pain or euphoria) by leveraging the body’s own dissociative and self-medicating systems. This re-contextualizes addiction as a desperate, often unconscious, self-regulatory effort. It shifts the therapeutic focus from breaking a “bad habit” or treating a “disease” to understanding and resolving the underlying trauma and dissociative patterns that drive the addictive behavior. This has profound implications for treatment, emphasizing compassion, trauma resolution, and working with the body’s innate wisdom rather than against it.

Table 2: Key Tenets of the Addiction as Dissociation Model (ADM)

Key Concept/Tenet	Detailed Explanation/Definition
Addiction Definition	The relationship created between unresolved trauma and the continued and unchecked progression of dissociative responses.
Drug Use Memory	A drug use can produce an unprocessed addiction/drug use memory (akin to traumatic memory) and can produce dissociative manifestations (e.g., PTSD symptoms) if left untreated.
Trauma vs. Dissociation	Trauma is an event; anything that occurs post-event is dissociation, representing a bodily dissociative/stress response attempting to return to homeostasis.
Spectrum of Dissociation	Trauma, dissociation, and addiction exist on a normed range from normal/reasonable altered states of consciousness (ASC) to pathological states (dissociation-in-trauma). The spectrum is cyclical with overlapping symptomology.
Role of Endogenous Systems	Pain-based dissociative responses involve the endogenous opiate system (numbing) and the endocannabinoid system (healing). In active PTSD, cortisol is lower, while endogenous opiates and endocannabinoids are higher.
“Choice” in Addiction	An unconscious survival choice; the “disease” of addiction is pathological dissociation, stemming from dissociation-in-trauma, creating a cycle of addiction-in-dissociation and dissociation-in-addiction.
Addiction as Conditioning	One can become addicted (habitual/procedural memory dependent) to dissociation through intrusive means producing associative learning and classical/operant conditioning.
Implicit Memory System	Highly involved in early childhood development and essential for health, well-being, and healing; involved in the body’s healing process (“get sick to get well”).
Trauma is Addicting	Due to the involvement of the endogenous opiate system in dissociation, trauma itself can be addicting.

8. Synthesizing Psychedelic Therapy and Memory Reconsolidation

The integration of Psychedelic Therapy (PT) with Memory Reconsolidation (MR) offers a compelling framework for understanding its therapeutic efficacy. A PT session can be understood as a direct engagement with the MR algorithm, facilitated by the unique properties of psychedelic compounds.

The dynamics of a PT session unfold in a manner that directly aligns with the three steps of MR:

1. Activation (Step 1 MR): As the psychedelic medicine acts as a Mechanism of Action (MoA), psychological defense mechanisms are lowered, and the conscious mind begins to quiet. The individual enters an Altered State of Consciousness (ASC), and the body initiates a process of regulation. A “feeling body” emerges, communicating through images, symbolic meanings, and somatic expressions. This process is akin to an inherent intelligence guiding the selection of implicit scenes, where time, space, and even genetic memory can be accessed.  
2. Contrast/Conflict (Step 2 MR): As feelings are allowed to be experienced, memory networks become activated, often triggering a chain reaction of emotionally connected memories. This can bring forth unprocessed trauma, past abuses, or, conversely, states of profound bliss, heavily influenced by the individual’s mindset, the therapeutic setting, and their pre-established intentions. The cognitive, left-brain functions may initially feel “stunned,” observing the unfolding internal landscape and attempting to make sense of the experience. This often leads to a sense of “learned helplessness” and eventual surrender, as the individual recognizes their inability to consciously control the experience. Patterns of understanding begin to emerge from this dissonance between past experiences and present awareness.  
3. New Acquired Knowledge/Integration (Step 3 MR): With acceptance of the loss of control, a deeper wisdom begins to surface. The “inner-rings” of the self, representing unconscious aspects, are acknowledged and communicate profound insights, revealing unfinished business, alternative actions, and the true intentions behind past behaviors. This phase, often likened to the dying process, facilitates an adaptive resolution of the individual’s identity and composition. As the medicine’s effects gradually subside, the individual enters a deep state of relaxation, with the body energized by healing agents like the endocannabinoid system, endorphins, and oxytocin, while the quieted mind idles in a state of repair. This allows for the integration of new information and insights.  

The neurobiological underpinnings of PT directly support its capacity for MR. Psychedelics are known to decrease activity in the Default Mode Network (DMN) , which is associated with self-referential thought and rumination. This reduction in DMN activity, coupled with the thinning of the Amnesia Barrier (AB)—the metaphorical veil between conscious and unconscious —readily allows for MR to occur. Furthermore, psychedelics increase neural activity , impact gene expression , and are directly implicated in performing MR.  

The role of intention and the therapeutic guide is critical in PT. The client’s intentions, typically related to their presenting issues, serve to access the orienting system of the brain. The guide, maintaining a state of dual attunement, acts as a “grounded MoA agent,” facilitating the client’s entry into the dissociative/somatic memory system where imagery, symbolism, and felt-senses are the primary modes of communication. The importance of “set, setting, and skill” for positive outcomes is paramount. The “euphoric stress” induced by the psychedelic, functioning as a Dual Attention Stimulus (DAS), brings unconscious awareness into conscious awareness.  

The mechanisms observed in PT sessions draw clear parallels to other established MoA. For instance, while the client’s eyes may be closed, their internal focus on what they are “seeing” during the experience accesses a similar MoA to Brainspotting’s mindful gazing or DBR’s fixed gaze while orienting to body tension. Additionally, natural left-to-right eye movements, reminiscent of EMDR’s bilateral stimulation, can occur spontaneously under the influence of the medicine. This suggests that the MR process can be continuously happening, as the contrast between awareness and unawareness allows dual attention to exist.  

The emergence of “negative states” during a PT session further facilitates MR. These states, which can manifest as unconscious personality shifts, regressions to earlier ages, or reenactments of unresolved trauma, arise as the drug thins the Amnesia Barrier. This natural shift in states inherently sets up step two of MR—the confrontation with conflict. The unique aspect of PT is the opportunity for the client to consciously engage with these “negative states” in a therapeutic setting, with the AB lowered. This direct engagement with internal conflict is crucial for facilitating the reconsolidation process. The importance of applying skills learned in the pre-integration, stabilization, and preparation phases of treatment cannot be overstated for achieving positive outcomes.  

The vivid description of the psychedelic experience—with defenses lowered, the mind quieting, the body communicating through images, conflicting emotions arising, and the eventual surrender and emergence of “negative states”—suggests that PT intentionally induces a controlled, therapeutic crisis that compels confrontation with unresolved material. This intense internal experience, facilitated by the medicine, bypasses typical conscious resistance and forces the individual to engage with deeply buried or avoided material, representing a deliberate disruption of the status quo. PT does not merely facilitate MR; it accelerates it by creating conditions that mimic natural, albeit often overwhelming, life crises, such as the dying process. This indicates that the “breakthrough” status of PT lies in its capacity to rapidly induce the necessary conditions for profound, transformative memory reprocessing, potentially shortening therapeutic timelines compared to traditional methods. It highlights the therapeutic power of confronting and integrating difficult internal experiences under supportive conditions.

9. Discussion: Broader Implications and Debates

The evidence presented strongly positions Psychedelic Therapy (PT) as a viable candidate for an evidence-based practice, given its demonstrated capacity to access Memory Reconsolidation (MR), a mechanism shared with other established trauma therapies. The therapeutic process in PT begins with intention setting or orienting, which is crucial for establishing a “grounded Altered State of Consciousness (ASC)”. This orienting response, a function of the superior colliculus (SC) which is structurally below the periaqueductal gray (PAG) where emotional content is registered , is believed to help defuse the normal state of consciousness and open the door to ASC.  

A key neurochemical aspect of PT is the surge of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine acting on 5-HT2a receptors, primarily located in the cerebral cortex. This neurochemical cascade is believed to facilitate the communication of unconscious material to the conscious mind, which is often misinterpreted and labeled as a “hallucination” by an uninformed conscious mind, including professionals and the general public. This perspective suggests that these so-called “hallucinations” are not random but are organically understood as unconscious material stemming from unprocessed memories, much like dreams. The ongoing debate in the literature often centers on what to include in the symptomology of dissociation, as individuals with pathological dissociation also experience a normed range of ASC.  

A critical area requiring further understanding is “chemical dissociation”. The paper argues that a clear operational definition of addiction is necessary to fully grasp this phenomenon, as the traumatic and dissociative nature of drug use memory is not adequately accounted for in current peer-reviewed literature. The Addiction as Dissociation Model (ADM) proposes a universality to the spectrum of dissociation, asserting that it is symptomatically overlapping, process-dependent, and conditional based on internal and external stimuli. This model suggests that conditioned intrusive dissociative responses are the driving force behind addiction.  

Drug use, like traumatic events, has the capacity to break through or at least thin the Amnesia Barrier (AB), allowing “negative states” to emerge. This implies the existence of a “dissociative memory and dissociative memory system” where state-dependent learning occurs. This state-dependent learning is essential for comprehending unconscious reenactments, suggesting that this system retains knowledge and possesses an implicit intelligence. Furthermore, the “euphoric stress” induced by drug use can override the cognitive mind, driven by “playful survival needs” , much like physical safety becomes paramount in moments of distress. This dynamic helps explain why illnesses, including addiction, can “take on a life of their own”.  

The endocannabinoid system plays a significant role in this discussion. Its involvement in dissociation and its instrumental role in healing suggest that it could be the “common neurochemical grounding agent that helps perform MR”. This hypothesis warrants continued research, particularly regarding the therapeutic potential of psychedelic cannabis (THC/CBD) as a healing agent. The paper also raises a profound question: Is there an inherent “intelligence or agenda behind dissociation?”. It proposes that the dissociative state may be a resting or healing state actively attempting to perform MR, given that the body, as a “differential system,” can only respond with “yes or no” or “one and zeros,” implying it “cannot lie”.  Adding the neutral state of awareness, ADM offers a reasonable explanation for the lived experience and how it is experienced in the psyche.

A significant critique is leveled against current diagnostic frameworks. The Dissociative Experience Scale (DES) explicitly excludes drug influence when assessing dissociation, and the DSM-5 (Criteria A) does not identify medical procedures or medications as potentially life-threatening experiences, even though they can be to the unconscious intelligence. This leads to a misrepresentation of dissociation’s prevalence. While pathological dissociation is often considered rare , the epidemic levels of trauma indicated by studies like the ACE’s study suggest a similar statistical representation of dissociation, which is often masked by dissociative/addictive presentations. The paper argues that addiction and depression are miscategorized and should be understood as Trauma and Stress-Related Disorders, given the clear involvement of the stress and dissociative response systems. Ultimately, the process of feeling psychologically and emotionally unwell to achieve betterment is viewed as a function of the implicit memory system, driven by the motivation to alleviate pain and seek pleasure or safety through regulatory means.  

The repeated emphasis on how current diagnostic frameworks and professional understanding disregard or exclude drug-induced states, medical procedures as trauma, and the prevalence of dissociation points to a broader “system of denial” within the mental health establishment regarding the true nature of trauma, dissociation, and healing. This pattern of exclusion, misinterpretation, and stigmatization by established systems suggests a deep-seated resistance to acknowledging phenomena that challenge existing paradigms, such as the universality of dissociation or the profound therapeutic potential of drug-induced states. This “system of denial” not only impedes effective treatment but also perpetuates suffering by failing to recognize the true etiology and prevalence of trauma and dissociation. The paper implicitly calls for a radical paradigm shift, urging the profession to confront its own biases and embrace a more holistic, trauma-informed, and biologically grounded understanding of mental health, potentially leading to a more compassionate and effective healthcare system.

10. Special Considerations for Psychedelic Therapy

While Psychedelic Therapy (PT) may appear as a novel frontier, it is crucial to recognize that it is not entirely new territory, particularly from a moral recovery-based program. Instead, it represents a contemporary re-engagement with ancient healing practices, suggesting that the therapeutic process itself is not entirely “uncharted waters”. However, the current approach to PT offers a more structured and guided “ride to the unconscious” compared to previous, less formalized explorations, but what this work does is provide reasonable explanations for how and why healing states are common enough to not be a mystery anymore.  

The success of PT, like any effective trauma therapy, hinges significantly on thorough preparation and post-session integration. Establishing clear goals and objectives prior to a session is essential for a positive outcome, effectively serving as an orienting process. Trauma-competent therapists and addiction specialists possess a unique skill set that distinguishes them from conventional cognitive and talk therapists, as they are adept at exploring memory systems within a grounded dissociative state. Therefore, all clinicians engaging in psychedelic therapy must be proficient in understanding, assessing, educating clients on, navigating, and treating the broad spectrum of dissociation using Memory Reconsolidation (MR) principles.  

A compelling observation is that the medicine itself is often perceived by clients as “much more reliable and trustworthy than people/clinicians or the therapeutic process”. This perception frequently stems from past relational traumas, where previous breaks in trust or attachment have made clients wary of traditional relational approaches. While the medicine can facilitate profound experiences, the clinician remains instrumental in establishing and maintaining a safe therapeutic container, underscoring the importance of the therapeutic relationship for successful outcomes.  

However, significant barriers to healing persist. The “negative state” tactics, often mimicking authoritarianism and rooted in avoidance, present considerable challenges to effective navigation in therapy, frequently preventing individuals from even seeking treatment due to pervasive denial, ignorance, and stigma. Yet, beneath these “negative” aspects of the self lies a deeper wisdom about life and humanity, which becomes accessible when engaged effectively. Gaining access to this unconscious collective and “shadow” material is deemed essential for both individual and global healing. The paper argues that societal and professional avoidance of this unconscious material perpetuates suffering and trauma, emphasizing that for those willing and prepared, PT helps “remove the veil of ignorance, appearances, and pervading (and persistent) unconscious system of denial”. This facilitates the healing of traumatic memory at both individual and collective levels.  

The transdiagnostic status of trauma, stress, and dissociation highlights their inseparable cause-and-effect relationship. Stressful events inevitably produce a stress response (dissociation), leading to symptoms of distress (e.g., anxiety, depression, grief, shame), which are ultimately regulated by dissociative means. This leads to the concept of addiction as a dependence on these emotional states, where individuals become “addicted to the emotional ride”. As PTSD is fundamentally an outline of dissociative mechanisms, dissociation is identified as a common denominator in all mental health pathologies, yet it is also crucial for healing mental health needs. Dissociation, through the endogenous opiate and cannabinoid systems, initiates numbing and healing processes. When emotional expression of traumatic experiences is inhibited, the stress of trauma and its dissociative echo create dysregulation in the body and mind. Healing these memories is thus seen as healing the whole person.  

A critical consideration in PT is the common recommendation for clients to discontinue psychiatric medications prior to dosing sessions. This practice, while considered best, is not always managed with sufficient information or support for clients or clinicians. The long-term effects of psychiatric medications are increasingly coming to light , prompting a necessary self-reflection within the medical model regarding historical prescribing practices and its symbiotic relationship with the pharmaceutical industry. Clients undergoing medication tapering would benefit immensely from the support of trauma-dissociation-addiction informed clinicians who utilize “parts work” and incorporate biological regulation techniques like Neurofeedback. The use of psychedelic cannabis (THC/CBD) is also highlighted as offering a broader range of access and support, providing both educational and psychedelic experiences that can aid in medication transition and deepen the therapeutic process with other medicines.  

Given the dissociative nature of psychedelic medicine, it is strongly suggested that clinicians become proficient in assessing and treating clinical dissociation using trauma resolution methods. This proficiency must include the ability to facilitate a “dissociative meeting area” for all clients, an invaluable skill for gaining unconscious consent to treatment. The reenactment or replication of a positive drug experience can be understood as “dissociation as attachment,” forming the basis for all addictions, whether to safety, comfort, food, sex, shopping, power, or control. As previously explored, clients can become addicted to trauma itself due to the involvement of the endogenous opiate system in dissociation. While trauma memories are temporary events, their memory and the “echo of the trauma” (dissociation) are what are felt and impact the person’s conscious awareness today, disrupting the balance between conscious and unconscious. However, because memories are considered permanent , life experiences literally shape who an individual becomes. Therefore, kindness begets kindness, and challenging previously held beliefs with new experiences can update understanding and resolve internal emotional conflict. Obsessive, compulsive, and impulsive acts, characteristic of addiction and traumatized individuals in survival mode, often stem from a state of desperation, which paradoxically can be the ultimate motivation for profound change.  

The explicit statement that “Medical and psychological professionals (and Big Pharma) have to come to terms that they have created (and are creating) a lot of traumas in an effort to help people heal out of their own ignorance, arrogance, and desire to help” serves as a direct accusation and a call for profound ethical reflection and systemic change within healthcare. This implies that the historical and current practices of conventional mental healthcare, often driven by a lack of understanding of trauma and dissociation, have inadvertently caused iatrogenic harm. For PT to be truly ethical and effective, it must not only integrate trauma-informed principles but also actively address the historical and ongoing harms inflicted by the very systems now seeking to adopt psychedelics. This necessitates a commitment to humility, self-reflection, and a radical re-evaluation of power dynamics within the therapeutic relationship, ensuring that PT does not repeat the mistakes of the past by imposing solutions without a deep understanding of the client’s internal world and the systemic factors contributing to their distress. This underscores that “skill” in PT includes profound ethical awareness and humility.

11. Conclusion

The analysis of “Memory Reconsolidation and Psychedelic Therapy” by Dr. Adam O’Brien culminates in a powerful synthesis of ancient wisdom and modern neurobiology, advocating for a transformative approach to healing. The core argument rests on the premise that disorientation, whether induced by illness, life crises, or psychedelic experience, serves as a profound opportunity to regain a “lost orientation of the heart/body”. This perspective posits that illness, in its essence, compels individuals to slow down and listen to the inherent wisdom of their own bodies; if the mind resists this internal dialogue, illness can force these doors open.  

Psychedelic Therapy, as detailed in this paper, offers a distinct and reliable pathway to healing. The comprehensive examination of its mechanisms, particularly its demonstrated capacity to access and facilitate Memory Reconsolidation (MR), provides substantial support for its recognition as an evidence-based therapy. This understanding necessitates a broader paradigm shift in how trauma, dissociation, and addiction are conceptualized and treated, moving beyond conventional, often limited, frameworks.  

For those individuals who are both willing and adequately prepared, PT serves as a potent catalyst. It helps to “remove the veil of ignorance, appearances, and pervading (and persistent) unconscious system of denial” , thereby facilitating the profound healing of traumatic memory at both individual and collective levels. The interconnectedness of illness and healing is illuminated, revealing that all forms of distress are rooted in traumatic and stressful experiences. While the body inherently strives for healing, the inhibition of emotional expression regarding these experiences can lead to disease. Consequently, healing the underlying memories is presented as the pathway to healing the entire person.  

Ultimately, the paper underscores that desperation, often arising from the obsessive, compulsive, and impulsive acts characteristic of addiction or chronic trauma, can paradoxically serve as the most potent motivation for genuine and lasting change. The progression of thought here is that suffering, in this view, is not a random malfunction but a purposeful disruption of maladaptive patterns, a “forcing open” of the mind to the heart’s wisdom when conscious awareness resists. This perspective offers a profound re-framing of pathology, suggesting that the body and psyche are always striving for health, and symptoms are often intelligent, albeit painful, communications from the unconscious. This encourages a more respectful, less adversarial approach to mental and physical distress, viewing it as a guide towards necessary internal shifts and deeper integration. It reinforces the idea that PT, by inducing a controlled disorientation, is leveraging this fundamental biological imperative for self-correction and healing.

References

O’Brien, A. (2023a). Addiction as Trauma-Related Dissociation: A Phenomenological Investigation of the Addictive State. International University of Graduate Studies. (Dissertation). Retrieved at woundedhealersinstitute.org/courses/addiction-as-dissociation-model-course/

O’Brien, A. (2023b). Memory Reconsolidation in Psychedelics Therapy. In Path of the Wounded Healer: A Dissociative-Focused Phase Model for Normative and Pathological States of Consciousness: Training Manual and Guide. Albany, NY: Wounded Healers Institute. Retrieved at woundedhealersinstitute.org/courses/addiction-as-dissociation-model-course/

O’Brien, A. (2023c). Path of the Wounded Healer: A Dissociative-Focused Phase Model for Normative and Pathological States of Consciousness: Training Manual and Guide. Albany, NY: Wounded Healers Institute. Retrieved at woundedhealersinstitute.org/

O’Brien, A. (2024a). Healer and Healing: The re-education of the healer and healing professions as an advocation. Re-educational and Training Manual and Guide. Albany, NY: Wounded Healers Institute. Retrieved at woundedhealersinstitute.org/

O’Brien, A. (2024b). Path of the Wounded Healers for Thrivers: Perfectionism, Altruism, and Ambition Addictions; Re-education and training manual for Abusers, Activists, Batterers, Bullies, Enablers, Killers, Narcissists, Offenders, Parents, Perpetrators, and Warriors. Re-Education and Training Manual and Guide. Albany, NY: Wounded Healers Institute. Retrieved at woundedhealersinstitute.org/

O’Brien, A. (2025). American Made Addiction Recovery: a healer’s journey through professional recovery. Albany, NY: Wounded Healers Institute. Retrieved at woundedhealersinstitute.org/